ࡱ> ,.)*+~` bjbj H@-&4(f f f z "F"F"F8ZFLJz vKlS"S:SS///kmmmmmm$ܸhDf ɔÅl/ɔɔ  SS1ɔ Sf Skɔk ^f SjK C"F0yf /%D=///p///ɔɔɔɔz z z D",dz z z ,z z z         Observed subseasonal variability of oceanic barrier and compensated layers Hailong Liu, Semyon A. Grodsky, and James A. Carton Revised for Journal of Climate April 17, 2009 Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 Corresponding author: Semyon Grodsky (senya@atmos.umd.edu) Abstract A monthly gridded analysis of barrier layer and compensated layer width based on observed vertical profiles of temperature and salinity and covering the period 1960-2007 is explored for evidence of subseasonal variability and its causes. In the subtropics and midlatitudes this variability is mostly evident in time to the local cold season when barrier layers and compensated layers are present. There is significant variability of anomalous barrier layer and compensated layer width on interannual periods, while in the North Pacific longer term changes are also detectable. In the winter North Pacific a salinity stratified barrier layer exists at subpolar latitudes. Further south along the Kuroshio extension a compensated layer exists. The thickness of the barrier layer varies from year to year by up to 60m while compensated layer thickness varies by half as much. During the observation period the barrier layer thickness shrank in response to a strengthening of the Aleutian low pressure system, the resulting strengthening of dry northerly winds, and a decrease of precipitation. In contrast, the compensated layer thickness grew in response to this pressure system strengthening and related amplification of the midlatitude westerly winds, the resulting increase of net surface heat loss, and its effect on the temperature and salinity of the upper ocean water masses. The tropical Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans all have permanent barrier layers. Their interannual variability is less than 20m but is comparable in magnitude to the time mean barrier layer width in this area. In the tropical Pacific west of 160oE and in the eastern tropical Indian Ocean, the barrier layer thickness changes by approximately 5 m in response to a 10 unit change in the South Oscillation Index. It thickens during La Ninas as a result of the presence of abundant rainfall and thins during dry El Ninos. Interannual variations of barrier layer width in the equatorial Pacific are weak east of 160E with an exception of the area surrounding the eastern edge of the warm pool. Here subduction of salty water contributes to locally stronger variations of barrier layer thickness. 1. Introduction The ocean mixed layer is a near-surface layer of fluid with quasi-uniform properties such as temperature, salinity, and density. The thickness of this mixed layer and its time rate of change both strongly influence the oceans role in air-sea interaction. However, the thickness of the near-surface layer of quasi-uniform temperature, MLT, may differ from the thickness of the near-surface layer of quasi-uniform density, MLD. MLT may be thicker than MLD when positive salinity stratification forms a barrier layer (BL=MLT-MLD) isolating the shallower and deeper levels of the mixed layer as was originally found in the western equatorial Pacific (Lukas and Lindstrom, 1991). Elsewhere MLT may be thinner than MLD when negative salinity stratification compensates for positive temperature stratification (or the reverse situation) to form a Compensated Layer (CL=MLD-MLT) (Stommel and Fedorov, 1967; Weller and Plueddemann, 1996). Changes in the seasonal thicknesses of BLs and CLs from one year to the next may cause corresponding changes in the role of the mixed layer in air-sea interaction by altering the effective depth of the mixed layer or the temperature of water at the mixed layer base (e.g., Ando and McPhaden, 1997). Here we examine the global historical profile data set covering the period 1960-2007 for evidence of corresponding year-to-year changes in the BL and CL thickness distribution. Four studies; Sprintall and Tomczak (1992), Tomczak and Godfrey (1994), de Boyer Montegut et al. (2007), and Mignot et al. (2007); have provided an observational description of the seasonal cycle of BL and CL distribution over much of the global ocean. BLs are a persistent feature of the tropics as well as high latitudes during winter. Spatial distribution of BLs in the tropics resembles spatial distribution of the surface freshwater flux. Here BLs occur in regions of high rainfall and river discharge such as the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, where layers as thick as 20-60m have been observed (Thadathil et al., 2008). Similarly, BLs occur in the western Equatorial Pacific under the high precipitation regions of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and South Pacific Convergence Zone (Lukas and Lindstrom, 1991; Ando and McPhaden, 1997) and in the western tropical Atlantic (Pailler et al., 1999; Ffield, 2007). Impacts of the freshwater forcing on BLs are also evident at high latitudes. Here BLs occur where freshening in the near-surface is produced by excess precipitation over evaporation, river discharge, or ice melting (de Boyer Montegut et al., 2007). In particular, in the Southern Ocean south of the Polar Front BLs occur as a result of near surface freshening due to ice melting and weak thermal stratification (e.g. de Boyer Montegut et al., 2004). BLs produced by the surface freshening may be most evident in regions where upward Ekman pumping ( EMBED Equation.3 ) acts against the effects of vertical mixing such as occurs in the north Pacific subpolar gyre (Kara et al., 2000). In addition to local air-sea interactions, the cross-gyre transport of salty and warm Kuroshio water from the subtropical gyre (that spreads in the subpolar gyre below the fresh mixed layer) contributes to the formation of a stable haline stratification and thus allows a cool mixed layer to exists over a warmer thermocline during winter-spring in the North Pacific subpolar gyre (Ueno and Yasuda, 2000; Endoh et al., 2004). At lower latitudes there is a remarkable regularity of BLs appearance equatorward of the subtropical salinity maxima (e.g. Sato et al., 2006). In the subtropical gyres the salinity is high due to permanent excess of evaporation over precipitation and the Ekman downwelling. Here BLs are present due to the subsurface salinity maximum produced by subduction and equatorward propagation of salty water. The subtropical north Pacific provides an example of this. In this region BLs are the result of subduction and southward propagation of salty North Pacific Subtropical Mode Water below fresher tropical surface water (Sprintall and Tomczak, 1992). Much less is known about subseasonal variations of BLs and CLs. In their examination of mooring time series Ando and McPhaden (1997) show that BLs do have interannual variability in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific and conclude that the major driver is precipitation variability associated with El Nino. At 0oN 140oW, for example, the BL thickness increased from 10m to 40m in response to the enhanced rains of the 1982-3 El Nino. Precipitation is particularly strong over the western Pacific warm pool. Intense atmospheric deep convection over the high SSTs of the warm pool produces heavy rainfall that promotes formation of thick salt-stratified BLs that, in turn, keep the warm pool SSTs high (Ando and McPhaden, 1997). In addition to rainfall, ocean dynamics also contributes to formation of BLs in the western equatorial Pacific. At the seasonal time scales Mignot et al. (2007) suggest that changes in zonal advection in response to seasonally varying winds and wind-driven convergence are important in regulating BLs at the eastern edge of the western Pacific warm pool. Recent observations of Maes et al. (2006) indicate a close relationship between the longitude of the eastern edge of the warm pool, high SSTs, and the presence of barrier layers. During ENSO cycles the eastern edge of the warm pool shifts in the zonal direction that produces related interannual changes of BLs. In the west observational studies by Cronin and McPhaden (2002) and Maes et al. (2006) document the response of the mixed layer to intense westerly wind bursts, their fetch, and accompanying precipitation and show how these lead to both the formation and erosion of BLs. CLs in contrast may result from excess evaporation over precipitation, such as occurs in the subtropical gyres, or by differential advection where it leads to cooler fresher surface water overlying warmer saltier subsurface water (Yeager and Large, 2007; Laurian et al., 2008). de Boyer Montegut et al. (2004) summarize several additional possible mechanisms of CL formation, such as subduction-induced advection, Ekman transport, slantwise convection and density adjustment. CLs are most prominent in the eastern subpolar North Atlantic and in the Southern Ocean (de Boyer Montegut et al., 2007). In the eastern North Atlantic a CL is formed by transport of the warm and salty North Atlantic Current above fresher colder subpolar water. Further east the North Atlantic Current splits into a northern branch comprising the Norwegian and Irminger Currents, and the southward Canary Current, all of which also develop CLs. Climatological impacts of BLs and CLs have not been comprehensively understood yet. Although the ocean salinity does not have a direct impact on air-sea interactions or SST, the salinity stratification can feed back indirectly to the atmosphere through its influence on the upper ocean density stratification (Ando and McPhaden, 1997; Maes et al., 2006; Ffield, 2007). In particular Maes et al. (2006) suggest that the presence of a BL suppresses heat exchange between the mixed layer and the thermocline by reducing or cutting off entrainment cooling and trapping the heat and momentum fluxes in a shallow surface layer. Thus, a positive feedback between barrier layer formation and warm SSTs is possible. This positive feedback can ultimately lead to formation of SST hot spots (SST>29.75C) observed at the eastern edge of the Pacific warm pool (Waliser, 1996). Foltz and McPhaden (2009) have found that erroneous BLs can bias SST simulations due to improper representation of heat exchange across the bottom of the mixed layer. Much less is known about potential feedbacks of CLs on SST and the atmosphere. Arguably, density compensation within CLs enhances heat exchanges across the bottom of the mixed layer, and thus should provide a negative feedback on SST. In this study we build on previous observational examinations of the seasonal cycle of BL/CL development to explore year-to-year variability. This study is made possible by the extensive 7.9 million hydrographic profile data set contained in the World Ocean Database 2005 (Boyer et al., 2006) supplemented by an additional 0.4 million profiles collected as part of the Argo observing program. We focus our attention primarily on the Northern Hemisphere because of its higher concentration of historical observations. 2. Data and methods This study is based on the combined set of temperature and salinity vertical profiles archived in the World Ocean Database 2005 (WOD05) for the period 1960-2004 and Argo floats from 1997 to 2007. Data quality control and processing are detailed in Carton et al. (2008) who used the WOD05 profile inventory to explore subseasonal variability of global ocean mixed layer depth. Mixed layer depth is defined here following Carton et al. (2008) (which in turn combines the approaches of Kara et al., 2000 and de Boyer Montegut et al., 2004) as the depth at which the change in temperature or density from its value at the reference depth of 10m exceeds a specified value (for temperature:  EMBED Equation.3 ). This reference depth is sufficiently deep to avoid aliasing by the diurnal signal, but shallow enough to give a reasonable approximation of monthly SST. Because the definition of mixed layer depth is based on the 10m reference depth, our examination misses features like shallow freshwater lenses (just after intense rainfalls) and other transient processes in the very upper 10m column. The value of  EMBED Equation.3  is chosen following de Boyer Montegut et al. (2004) as a compromise between the need to account for the accuracy of mixed layer depth retrievals and the need to avoid sensitivity of the results to measurement error. The absolute temperature difference instead of the negative temperature difference is used following Kara et al. (2000) in order to accommodate for temperature inversions that are widespread at high latitudes. The specified change in density used to define the density-based mixed layer depth follows the variable density criterion (e.g. Sprintall and Tomczak, 1992) to be locally compatible with the specified temperature value, (i.e.  EMBED Equation.3 ). In this study the thickness (or width) of either a barrier layer or compensated layer is defined as a difference of isothermal mixed layer depth and isopycnal mixed layer depth, MLT-MLD. The difference MLT-MLD is referred as BL/CL thickness in this paper. As a result of these definitions a positive MLT-MLD difference (BL/CL thickness > 0) indicates the presence of a BL while a negative MLT-MLD difference (BL/CL thickness < 0) indicates the presence of a CL. We compute BL/CL thicknesses for each profile. This data are then passed through a subjective quality control to eliminate outliers and averaged into 2o2o1 month grid without any attempt to fill in empty bins. The total number of binned MLT observations on a 2o2o monthly grid during 1960-2007 is 1,021,580. Many of these observations are obtained from temperature only profiles measured by either expendable or mechanical bathythermographs; there are only 364,228 (or ~35%) binned MLD observations. As expected, the spatial coverage of both MLT and MLD is weighted towards the Northern Hemisphere. North of 10oS there are 271,157 MLD and 788,204 MLT observations (~75% of the global total). In this study we use only those vertical casts where both  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  are available, consequently numbers of MLT and MLD observations in this data subset are equal. In order to quantify the relative impact of temperature and salinity stratification within BLs and CLs we use a bulk Turner Angle, defined following Ruddick (1983) and Yeager and Large (2007) as:  EMBED Equation.3 , where  EMBED Equation.3 (negative) and  EMBED Equation.3  (positive) are the expansion coefficients due to temperature,  EMBED Equation.3 , and salinity,  EMBED Equation.3 . In this study the changes in temperature and salinity  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  are computed between the top,  EMBED Equation.3 , and the bottom,  EMBED Equation.3 , of either a BL or CL based on analysis of individual vertical profiles. The bulk Turner angle is then evaluated from spatially binned values of  EMBED Equation.3 and  EMBED Equation.3 . There are correspondences between the BL/CL width and the Turner angle. They are illustrated in Table 1 using idealized vertical  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  profiles that includes a perfectly homogeneous mixed layer of depth  EMBED Equation.3  (isothermal or isopycnal whichever is shallower) with a thermocline and halocline beneath where temperature and salinity vary linearly with depth ( EMBED Equation.3 ). CLBLCLBulk Turner angle-90o  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3  -45o-45o-45o 45o45o45o 90oVertical T-(solid) and S-(dashed) profiles SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Table 1. Bulk Turner angle and idealized vertical profiles of temperature and salinity corresponding to CL and BL.  EMBED Equation.3  implies stable stratification (z-axis is downward).  EMBED Equation.3  is isothermal or isohaline layer depth whichever is shallower. If the top of thermocline is above the top of halocline, the vertical stratification just below  EMBED Equation.3  is similar to the freshwater case ( EMBED Equation.3 ), so that BL=0 and  EMBED Equation.3 45o. In contrast, if the top of halocline is above the top of thermocline, the vertical thermal stratification just below  EMBED Equation.3  is absent ( EMBED Equation.3 ), the BL width could vary significantly while  EMBED Equation.3 -450. If for a vertical cast the top of halocline is at the same depth ( EMBED Equation.3 ) as the top of thermocline, the mixed layer depth based on temperature and density criteria is expressed via corresponding difference criteria ( EMBED Equation.3 0.2oC,  EMBED Equation.3 ) and vertical gradients, MLT= EMBED Equation.3 , MLD= EMBED Equation.3 . Switch between the CL and BL regimes occurs when BL=MLT-MLD= EMBED Equation.3  is zero. Noting that  EMBED Equation.3 , two solutions of BL=0 exist depending on the sign of  EMBED Equation.3 . If thermal stratification is stable ( EMBED Equation.3 ), BL=0 if salinity is homogeneous in the vertical ( EMBED Equation.3 =0) and  EMBED Equation.3 45o. If thermal stratification is unstable ( EMBED Equation.3 ), BL=0 if  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3 -72o. As seen from the above analysis, the BL width is not a unique function of the Turner angle. For a given  EMBED Equation.3  it also depends on  EMBED Equation.3  (which is a function of  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3 ) and on the vertical gradients. In addition, the mixed layer is only approximately homogenous, a fact that contributes to scatter of mixed layer depth (and BL/CL width) estimates especially in situations with weak stratification. Nevertheless, analysis of observed vertical profiles shows a distinct correspondence between values of  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 , and the presence of BLs and CLs (Fig. 1). Angles  EMBED Equation.3 <45o correspond to BLs stabilized by both temperature and salinity ( EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 <0). A BL stabilized by salinity but homogeneous in  EMBED Equation.3  corresponds to  EMBED Equation.3 =-45o, while  EMBED Equation.3 =45o corresponds to pure thermal stratification. Angles greater than 45o correspond to the most frequently occurring CLs where positive temperature stratification compensates for negative salinity stratification (where the mixed layer is saltier than the thermocline). Less frequently occurring CLs below cool and fresh mixed layers (-90o< EMBED Equation.3 < -72o) are observed at high latitudes. The transition point of -720 is associated with the density ratio  EMBED Equation.3  or  EMBED Equation.3 . For the majority of observed vertical profiles the bulk Turner angle varies between -450 and 900. In this range of  EMBED Equation.3  the BL/CL width varies monotonically (to within the scatter of data) as a function of  EMBED Equation.3  (Fig. 1). Thus bulk Turner angle in this range provides an alternative way of displaying BL/CL distribution. We explore the role that surface forcing plays in regulating mixed layer properties through comparison of the BL/CL distribution to fluxes from the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis of Kalnay et al. (1996). Satellite QuikSCAT scatterometer winds (see Liu, 2002), which begin in mid-1999, are used to characterize the finer scale spatial patterns of  EMBED Equation.3 . To better characterize precipitation in the tropics, we also examine the Climate Prediction Center Merged Analysis of Precipitation (CMAP) of Xie and Arkin (1997), which covers the period 1979 -present. 3. Results 3.1. Time mean and seasonal patterns Global seasonal patterns of BL and CL display many features revealed by previous analyses (de Boyer Montegut et al., 2007). Throughout the year there are persistent BLs in the tropics in areas of high precipitation (Figs. 2a, 2b) where our estimates of BL width are similar to previous analysis. In particular, BLs are thick under the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the South Pacific Convergence Zone. BLs are generally thickest on the western side of the tropical Pacific and Atlantic Oceans reflecting higher levels of rain as well as (in the case of the Atlantic) Amazon river discharge. In both the western tropical Pacific and Atlantic Oceans salt advection contributes to the seasonal variation of salinity and BLs (Foltz et al., 2004; Mignot et al., 2007). In contrast to the tropical Pacific and Atlantic (where BLs are thickest in the west) BLs are thickest on the eastern side of the tropical Indian Ocean due to the presence of the Java and Sumatra high precipitation area (Qu and Meyers, 2005). Rainfall in the southern Intertropical Convergence Zone in the South Atlantic (Grodsky and Carton, 2003) may contribute to freshening of the mixed layer along 10oS during austral winter. In midlatitudes BL/CLs occur in each Hemisphere mainly during local winter and early spring. In boreal winter BLs exceeding 60 m are observed in the North Pacific subpolar gyre (Fig. 2a). Similarly thick BLs occur in the Atlantic Ocean north of the Gulf Stream. In both locations the BLs appear coincident with a seasonal cooling of SST, weakening of thermal stratification, and deepening of MLT. In the north Pacific and the Labrador Sea our estimates of BL width are smaller than BL width by de Boyer Montegut et al. (2007). This difference is due to the difference in the definition of temperature-based mixed layer depth. As it is noted above, the de Boyer Montegut et al. (2007) MLT estimates are generally deeper in areas of subsurface temperature inversions due to inclusion of the entire depth range of temperature inversion into the mixed layer. Sea surface salinity (SSS) increases drastically moving from the cold sector to the warm sector across the Gulf Stream front leading to a switch from the BL regime north of the front to a CL regime south of the front (Fig. 2a). Thick CLs (thicker than 30m) are also observed along the Gulf Stream due to cross-frontal transport of low salinity water. And even thicker CLs (thicker than 60m) are observed further northeast along the path of the North Atlantic Current where its warm, salty water overlies cooler, fresher water. Interestingly, despite the presence of warm and salty western boundary currents in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the winter CLs are much less pronounced in the North Pacific than the North Atlantic. Explanation for this basin-to-basin difference likely lies in the higher surface salinity of the Atlantic (Fig. 2a) and consequently larger values of  EMBED Equation.3  (Fig. 3a). CLs are evident in the southern subtropical gyres of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans as well as the South Indian and Southwest Pacific Oceans (Fig. 2b) south of the 30oS SSS maximum. The presence of CLs in these regions reflects the northward advection of cold and fresh water which subducts (due to the downward Ekman pumping) under the water of the SSS maximum (Sprintall and Tomczak, 1993; Laurian et al., 2008). Note correspondence between CL in Fig. 2b and  EMBED Equation.3 in Fig. 3b. A similar subduction mechanism may explain BL formation in subtropical gyres (e.g. Sato et al., 2006). In particular, in the southern Indian Ocean BLs north of 30oS form as salty water from the region of the SSS maximum subducts northward under relatively fresh surface water (Fig. 2b). The subduction mechanism suggests the BL presence equatorward of the subtropical SSS maximum (where mixed layer tops saltier water below) and the CL presence poleward of the subtropical SSS maximum (where mixed layer is saltier than thermocline). This is evident in a dipole-like meridional pattern of CL and BL in the southern Indian Ocean and adjusted part of the Southern Ocean encompassing the area of SSS maximum along 30oS. Similar meridional dipole-like patterns with CLs to the south and BLs to the north of local subtropical SSS maxima are seen during austral winter in the South Pacific and the South Atlantic in the regions of downward  EMBED Equation.3  (Fig. 2b). This also appears to hold in the subtropics of the Northern Hemisphere (Fig. 2a). In the north Atlantic CLs are observed north of the subtropical SSS maximum (as expected from the subduction mechanism). But, in boreal winter the maximum width CLs in the north Atlantic are observed well north of the downward  EMBED Equation.3  regions (Fig. 2a). Here CLs extend along the Gulf Stream path and its northern extensions. This, in turn, suggests that in the North Atlantic the horizontal transport of warm salt waters by the western boundary current (rather than the subduction mechanism) contributes to regional CL formation. Both BLs and CLs accompanying the subtropical maximum of SSS are strongly seasonal (Fig. 2) in spite of the permanent presence of subtropical SSS maximum and the Ekman downwelling maintained by trade winds. Mignot et al. (2007) have suggested that these permanent factors form background haline stratification while the seasonal variability of BLs is explained by the seasonal deepening of the local MLT during the cold season due to intense wind stirring and negative buoyancy forcing and the presence of a shallow capping halocline. In fact, equatorward of the SSS maximum the subsurface salinity is relatively high because of the presence of salty Subtropical Underwater subducted in the region of the SSS maximum while the surface salinity is relatively low due to the poleward wind-driven advection of fresh equatorial waters (Foltz et al., 2004). In the CL sector the same seasonal deepening of the mixed layer explains the seasonal widening of CLs. Here the injection of saltier mixed layer water into a fresher thermocline (spice injection mechanism of Yeager and Large, 2007) results in stronger density compensation and the widening of CLs during local winter (Fig. 2) Spatial patterns of BL/CL width (Fig. 2) are in close correspondence with the spatial patterns of the vertical changes of salinity,  EMBED Equation.3 , (Figs. 3a, 3b). As expected, the BLs are distinguished by a stable salinity stratification,  EMBED Equation.3 , where salinity increases downward below the mixed layer. In contrast, CLs have unstable salinity stratification,  EMBED Equation.3 . As discussed above, regions of fresh mixed layer trace major areas of precipitation (like the Intertropical Convergence Zone) and river runoff (the Bay of Bengal). A different type of BL is observed on the equatorward flanks of the subtropical SSS maxima. In these areas the ocean accumulates salt due to an excess of evaporation over precipitation. As discussed in the previous paragraph, here the equatorward propagation of subducted water produces meridional dipole-like BL/CL and  EMBED Equation.3  structures that are most pronounced in the Southern Hemisphere during austral winter (Figs. 2b, 3b). The spatial patterns of the bulk Turner angle (Figs. 3e, 3f) indicate that the majority of CL cases are associated with warm, salty mixed layer water overlaying colder, fresher water beneath (thus  EMBED Equation.3 >45o). Much rarer CLs can also be formed when cold, fresh water overlays warmer, saltier water ( EMBED Equation.3 <-72o). This latter type of density compensation is observed only in limited regions of the Labrador Sea during northern winter and near Antarctica during austral winter. The most commonly observed CLs associated with warm and saltier mixed layers ( EMBED Equation.3 >45o) increase in width during the cold season. This seasonal widening of CL width is attributed by Yeager and Large (2007) to the seasonal increase in  EMBED Equation.3  that is produced by the spice injection and results in stronger density compensation, thus thicker CLs. The similarity of Figs. 3e, 3f to Figure 7 of Yeager and Large (2007) indicates that during the cold season the vertical changes of temperature and salinity within the BL/CL depth range have the same sign and roughly the same magnitude as the vertical changes across the upper 200 m water column. But, in the tropical Pacific and Atlantic (where the mixed layer is rather shallow) the Yeager and Large (2007) analysis shows significant areas of  EMBED Equation.3 >45o. In contrast, our analysis in Fig. 3 indicates that CLs dont occur in these tropical areas. In these tropical areas  EMBED Equation.3 >45o in the Yeager and Large (2007) analysis reflects density compensation due to stable thermal stratification and unstable haline stratification below the Equatorial Undercurrent core where both  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  decrease downward. 3.2 Subseasonal variability Interannual and longer (subseasonal) variability of BL/CL thickness is similar in amplitude to seasonal variability (compare Fig. 4 and Fig. 2). In the subtropics and midlatitudes this variability occurs in winter-spring of each Hemisphere when BL/CLs are present. During the rest of the year when subtropical and midlatitudes mixed layers warm and shoal the BL/CLs collapse, so that BL/CL width variability is weak. In the tropics BL/CLs are always present and so is their variability. In particular, the variability of BLs in the western tropical Pacific is ~50% (or more) of the time-mean BL width, which is 10m to 40m in this region (Figs. 2 and 4). This BL variability reflects interannual variations of rainfall and currents due to ENSO (Ando and McPhaden, 1997). In the western equatorial Atlantic as well the BLs are quasi-permanent due to Amazonian discharge and ITCZ rainfall (Pailler et al., 1999; Foltz et al., 2004). Interannual variability of BLs in this region is comparable in thickness to the time-mean BL width, which is 5m to 20m. This interannual variability is likely produced by interannual variation of river discharge as well as by anomalous meridional shifts of the Atlantic ITCZ. Time mean BLs vanish and their subseasonal variability is weak in the eastern tropical Atlantic and Pacific and along the eastern subtropical coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific (Fig. 4), where the mixed layer shoals due to equatorial and coastal upwellings. The zonal distribution of BL width variability is reversed in the tropical Indian Ocean where BLs are thickest and their variability is stronger in the east due to strong rainfall over the maritime continent and surrounding areas as well as river discharge from the Bay of Bengal. Subseasonal variability is stronger at higher latitudes reflecting weaker temperature stratification there. Weaker temperature stratification implies a stronger relative impact of freshwater fluxes and other factors on density stratification. The highest variability of BL/CL width (of up to 100m) occurs in winter in the North Atlantic along the routes of northward propagation of warm and salty Gulf Stream water. In these regions the vertical temperature and salinity stratification is similar to that in the subtropical gyres where CLs are formed as a result of the presence of a warmer and saltier mixed layer above a fresher thermocline. As warm and salty Gulf Stream water propagates northward, the temperature stratification weakens (due to the surface cooling), so that CLs widen. Spatial patterns of CLs are different in the North Pacific in comparison with the North Atlantic. In contrast to the North Atlantic, the near surface layer is relatively fresh in the North Pacific in response to abundant local rainfall. Kuroshio waters dont propagate northward in the surface layer. Instead, exchanges across the Kuroshio-Oyashio extension front result in the expansion of Kuroshio waters into the subpolar gyre where they form a warm and salty subsurface maximum (Endoh et al., 2004). This stable halocline is further maintained by the surface freshwater flux and the upward Ekman pumping. In winter when the MLT deepens in response to the surface cooling, this stable halocline produces 20m to 60m wide BLs (Fig. 2a) with subseasonal variation of similar magnitude (Fig. 4a). Time correlations of anomalous BL/CL width with other mixed layer parameters suggest the mechanisms that govern the subseasonal variability of BL/CL. In Fig. 5 we focus on the northern winter (JFM) when BL/CL width increases in the Northern Hemisphere. Over much of the global ocean BL/CL width is negatively correlated with the bulk Turner angle (Fig. 5a). Most BL cases are associated with fresh mixed layers and stable thermal stratification (-45o< EMBED Equation.3 <45o) while most CL cases are associated with salty mixed layers (45o< EMBED Equation.3 <90o) (Fig. 3). In this combined range -45o< EMBED Equation.3 <90o the BL/CL width decreases with increasing  EMBED Equation.3  (Fig. 1). In some northern areas including the subpolar Pacific, the cold sector of the Gulf Stream, and the Norwegian Sea BL width is positively correlated with  EMBED Equation.3 . All these areas are distinguished by temperature inversions bottoming fresh BLs (Figs. 3a, 3c). These vertical stratifications correspond to -72o< EMBED Equation.3 <-45o where the BL width increases with  EMBED Equation.3  (Fig. 1). BL width reaches maximum at  EMBED Equation.3 =-45o which corresponds to shallow fresh BL inside a deeper homogeneous temperature layer. Negative correlations between BL/CL width and MLD are similarly widespread (Fig. 5b). For BLs this negative correlation means the shallower the fresh density-based mixed layer is, the wider is the depth range separating the bottom of the MLT and MLD. For CLs that are associated with salty mixed layers, deepening of the density-based mixed layer suggests salt injection into the thermocline leading to stronger density compensation, and wider CLs (Yeager and Large, 2008). In contrast to its correlation with MLD, BL/CL width tends to be positively/negatively correlated with depth of MLT in barrier layer/compensated layer regions, respectively (Fig. 5c). The positive correlation in BL regions is better seen and may be explained using the same arguments as those employed by Mignot et al. (2007) to explain the seasonal variability of BLs. A variety of factors (surface freshwater fluxes, fresh water advection, etc.) produce shallow haline stratification. Year-to-year changes in the surface forcing affect the seasonal deepening of the MLT during the cold season. In the presence of a shallow capping halocline, these interannual variations of MLT (which define the base of the BL) explain variations of BL width. We next consider BL/CL thickness separated by season and roughly 15-year averaging periods (Fig. 6). In contrast to significant variability of anomalous BL/CL width on interannual and longer periods (Fig. 4), the decadal means are similar during the three averaging periods shown in Fig. 6. This suggests that much of the BL/CL width variability occurs at interannual periods except in the north Pacific where long term changes are also detectable. During the first period 1960-1975 thick BLs are evident during local winter in the North Pacific, western tropical Pacific and Atlantic, northern Indian Ocean, and Southern Ocean (the latter being evident even in austral summer). CLs during this early period appear primarily in the eastern North Atlantic. Little can be said about the existence of BLs in the Southern Ocean in austral winter due to the lack of data during this period. By the latest period, 1991-2007 several changes are evident. CLs have appeared in the subtropical North Pacific during winter replacing BLs. Elsewhere in the North Pacific the width of the BLs has shrunk. Vertically wide CLs are also evident on the northern side of the Circumpolar Current during austral winter (in fact these may have existed earlier but simply not been observed). In contrast to the North Pacific the North Atlantic doesnt exhibit similar long term changes even though the winter-spring meteorology of this region does exhibit decadal variations (Hurrell, 1995). We next examine monthly time series of BL/CL width in the north Pacific focusing on two adjacent regions: (1) BLs in the subpolar North Pacific (NP/BL box) and (2) CLs in the subtropical North Pacific (NP/CL box) outlined in Fig. 6. 3.3 North Pacific The monthly time series of the northern subpolar North Pacific BL region and the subtropical CL region both show long-term changes towards thinner BLs and thicker CLs interrupted by occasional interannual reversals (Figs. 7a, 7b). Indeed, the subtropical CL region actually supported a 10-20m thick BL prior to 1980s. One direct cause of this change from BL to CL seems to be the gradual deepening of the late winter-spring mixed layer in the central North Pacific noted by Polovina et al. (1995) and Carton et al. (2008). This observed 20 m deepening into the cooler, fresher sub-mixed layer water has the effect of strengthening density compensation (the spice injection mechanism is discussed by Yeager and Large, 2007). Carton et al. (2008) attribute the cause of mixed layer deepening to changes in the atmospheric forcing associated with the deepening of the Aleutian sea level pressure low after 1976. These changes led to strengthening of the midlatitude westerlies and the ocean surface heat loss in the North Pacific, hence the deepening of the mixed layer. The deepening of the mixed layer has opposite impacts on the width of CLs and BLs. It widens CLs by injecting saltier water from the mixed layer into fresher thermocline. In contrast, stronger atmospheric forcing and related deepening of the mixed layer normally destroys near-surface BLs by enhancing mixing. These mechanisms likely explain the narrowing of BLs and the widening of CLs in the North Pacific during recent decades (Figs. 7a, 7b). The BL and CL thicknesses in the NP/BL and NP/CL boxes both seem to be associated with wind changes resulting from changes in the Aleutian surface pressure low (Fig. 8). Widening of CLs in the NP/CL box is linked to anomalously strong westerly winds and a positive latent heat loss anomaly in the box (Fig. 8a). These two factors produce anomalous deepening of the mixed layer by amplifying wind stirring and convection. In the NP/CL box, the observed CL width increases in phase with deepening of the mixed layer (see inlay in Fig. 8a). This in-phase relationship is in line with the spice injection mechanism of Yeager and Large (2007). In contrast to vertical widening of CLs in the NP/CL box the BLs in the NP/BL box shrink when the local mixed layer deepens (Fig. 8a). Possible reason for this shrinking is the direct impact of wind stirring on BLs (as discussed in previous paragraph). Another reason for this shrinking is changes in the surface freshwater flux itself. In fact, the anomalous wind pattern that produces westerly wind strengthening in the NP/BL box includes also anomalous northerly winds to the west of the Aleutian low. These anomalous northerly winds decrease moisture transport from the south and thus reduce the precipitation in the NP/BL box vital to maintaining the BL (Fig. 8b). Anomalously weak rainfall leads to shrinking of BLs in the NP/BL box. Shrinking of BLs occurs in-phase with widening of CLs in the NP/CL box (just as in Figs. 7a, 7b). Coherent variability of January-March CL width and MLD in the NP/CL box is evident in Fig. 9a. Besides the correspondence on decadal scales, both CL width (that is negative) and MLD display apparent out-of-phase interannual variations, so that widening of CLs occur in-phase with deepening of the mixed layer. Variability of MLD in the box follows the variability of the winter Pacific Decadal Oscillation Index (PDO) of Mantua et al. (1997) in line with previous findings of Deser et al. (1996) and Carton et al. (2008). Correspondence of the mixed layer variability and the PDO suggests a link to variability of midlatitude westerly winds that, in turn, is linked to variability of the strength of the Aleutian low. In fact, this link is revealed by the time correlation analysis of the entire 1960-2007 records in Fig. 8a. Variability during particular interannual events also seems to be related to similar changes in winds. In particular, in winter of 1979 the westerly winds were weak in the southern part of the NP/CL box (Fig. 9b). As a result, the mixed layer was relatively shallow (~65m deep, Fig. 9a) and CLs were missing and replaced by BLs produced by winter rainfall. By the next winter the westerly winds in the box are amplified due to the expansion of the Aleutian low (compare areas within the 1000 mbar contour in Figs. 9b and 9c) and its southward shift. Enhanced mixing and convection due to stronger winds deepened the mixed layer down to 120m, injected saltier mixed layer water into the thermocline, and produced 10m wide CLs (Fig. 9a). 3.4 Tropical Oceans The origin of persistent BLs in the tropics (Fig. 2) is ultimately linked to tropical precipitation. Direct correspondence with local precipitation is observed in the far western equatorial Pacific (Mignot et al., 2007). But in some tropical regions the lateral freshwater transport or three dimensional circulation may also contribute. In particular, the lateral transport of Amazon discharge water, freshwater transport from high rainfall and river discharge areas along with local precipitation are all important in the western tropical Atlantic (Pailler et al., 1999; Foltz et al., 2004; Mignot et al., 2007) as well as in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (Qu and Meyers, 2005). In the western tropical Pacific at the eastern edge of the warm pool (where fresh water of the pool converges with saltier water to the east) BLs are affected by subduction of salty water in the convergence zone (Lukas and Lindstrom, 1991). Similar processes are involved at interannual time scales (Ando and McPhaden, 1997; Cronin and McPhaden, 2002). During La Nina when the Southern Oscillation Index is positive (SOI>0) tropical rainfall increases in the far western tropical Pacific and eastern tropical Indian Ocean (90E to 160E) by 1 mm/dy or 20% of the local time mean rainfall (in response to a 10 unit decrease of the SOI) (Fig. 10b). This western increase is accompanied by decreased rainfall over the rest of the tropical Pacific while Amazonian and tropical Atlantic rainfall increase. As a result of these changes in rainfall BL width in the western Pacific west of 160oE, which is normally 10-20m, increases by 5m (Figs. 10a, 10c). Thus, in the far western Pacific and eastern tropical Indian Ocean variations in BL thickness respond primarily to changes in surface freshwater flux. In the Atlantic sector excess discharge associated with the increases of rainfall over the Amazon doesnt result in an expected widening of BL (Fig. 10a). Possibly this lack of response may be because much of the Amazon discharge is transported in the Brazilian coastal zone. The BL response to ENSO variability is particularly strong in the zone between the dateline and 170W (Fig. 10a). During El Ninos the eastern edge of the Pacific warm pool expands into this zone accompanied by weakening upwelling and an eastward shift in the direction of near-surface currents to eastward (see e.g. Fig.2 in McPhaden, 2004). The anomalous wind-driven downwelling creates conditions favorable for developing of BLs at the eastern edge of the warm pool via the Lukas and Lindstrom (1991) mechanism. Conversely, during La Ninas the warm pool contracts westward while strengthened easterly winds strengthen upwelling that, in turn, reduces (or shuts down) the subduction mechanism. So the negative correlation seen between 180E-190E in Fig. 10a reflects formation of BLs in vicinity of the eastern edge of the warm pool during El Ninos and the absence of these BLs during La Ninas. 4. Summary This study examines subseasonal changes of barrier and compensated layers (BLs and CLs) based on analysis of profiles of temperature and salinity covering the years 1960-2007. Because of data limitations we focus mainly on the Northern Hemisphere and tropics. The processes that regulate subseasonal variability of BL/CL thickness are similar to those which regulate their seasonal appearance: fluctuations in surface freshwater flux, Ekman pumping, and processes regulating mixed layer deepening. Thus, the spatial distribution of subseasonal variability reflects aspects of the subseasonal variability of these forcing terms. Companion studies (e.g. Foltz et al., 2004; Mignot et al., 2007) suggest that contribution of lateral freshwater advection is also important. In the subtropics and midlatitudes during late winter-spring we find alternating regions of CLs and BLs in the seasonal climatology. The northern tropics of both the Pacific and Atlantic (the southern edge of the subtropical gyres) show broad regions of BLs where salty subtropical surface water formed further north has subducted, advected equatorward, and affected the water properties of the winter mixed layer. Within the evaporative subtropical North Pacific and eastern North Atlantic we find CLs resulting from mixed layers with positive temperature stratification but negative salinity stratification. In the subtropics and midlatitudes variability occurs mostly in local cold season when BLs and CLs are present. In the winter subpolar North Pacific a salinity stratified BL exists which does not have a counterpart in the North Atlantic, while further south along the Kuroshio extension a CL exists. Much of the BL/CL width variability occurs at interannual periods except in the North Pacific where longer term changes are detectable. The thickness of this BL varies from year to year by up to 60m at some grid points while CLs to the south experience variations approximately half of that. Longer-term variability results from strengthening of the Aleutian pressure low during successive winters, thus strengthening the midlatitude westerly winds leading to deeper mixed layers, cooler SSTs, and a long-term increase in the thickness of the CL to the south. The same changes in meteorology which include strengthening of the Aleutian pressure low also lead to an increase in dry northerly winds which in turn cause a thinning of the area average northern BL width from ~40m before 1980s to ~ 20m afterwards. In the tropics the origin of persistent BLs is ultimately linked to tropical precipitation. Precipitation in the tropics varies strongly interannually. During high precipitation years the mixed layers in these regions show capping fresh layers and thick BLs. In contrast, during low precipitation years mixed layer salinities increase and BL thickness decreases. In particular, in the western equatorial Pacific and eastern Indian Ocean between 90E and 160E, the BL (which is normally 10-20m wide in this area) thickens by 5m during La Nina while during the El Nino the BL thins by a similar amount in line with previous analysis of Ando and McPhaden (1997). During La Nina rainfalls weaken in the tropical Pacific east of 160E that results in a minor shrinking of BLs in the central and eastern tropical Pacific. But the BL shrinking has local amplification between the dateline and 170W. The strongly negative correlation of BL width with SOI in the central basin (180E-190E) appears to be the result of BL formation processes associated with the eastern edge of the warm pool during El Nino (when local equatorial upwelling is suppressed) and absence of these processes during La Nina (when the upwelling restores). Determining the basin-scale BL/CL structure tests the limits of the historical observing system. Further progress in understanding BL/CL variability and its role in air-sea interactions will likely require further exploration of models that provide reasonable simulations of observed variability. Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the Ocean Climate Laboratory of the National Oceanographic Data Center/NOAA and the Argo Program data upon which this work is based. Support for this research has been provided by the National Science Foundation (OCE0351319) and the NASA Ocean Programs. 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Plueddemann, 1996: Observations of the vertical structure of the oceanic boundary layer. J. Geophys. Res., 101, 87898806. Xie, P., and P.A. Arkin, 1997: Global Precipitation: A 17-Year Monthly Analysis Based on Gauge Observations, Satellite Estimates, and Numerical Model Outputs. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 78, 25392558. Yeager, S.G., and W.G. Large, 2007: Observational Evidence of Winter Spice Injection. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 37, 28952919. CLBLCLBulk Turner angle-90o  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3  -45o-45o-45o 45o45o45o 90oVertical T-(solid) and S-(dashed) profiles SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Table 1. Bulk Turner angle and idealized vertical profiles of temperature and salinity corresponding to CL and BL. Figure captions. Figure 1. Observed climatological winter-spring barrier layer/compensated layer thickness versus the bulk Turner angle evaluated using temperature ( EMBED Equation.3 ) and salinity ( EMBED Equation.3 ) difference between the top and bottom of a barrier or compensated layer. Vertical bars show the mean and the standard deviation for consecutive 22.50 intervals. Grey dots show January-March data from the Northern Hemisphere and July-September data from the Southern Hemisphere. The Turner angle range -720 to 450 corresponds to BL. CL occurs outside this interval. Figure 2. Observed climatological (a) January-March and (b) July-September barrier layer width (positive) and compensated layer width (negative). Climatological SSS (Boyer et al., 2006, contours), SSS EMBED Equation.3 35 psu (solid), SSS<35 psu (dashed). Areas of downward Ekman pumping are cross-hatched. Ekman pumping is evaluated from the QuikSCAT scatterometer winds of Liu (2002). Figure 3. Observed (a,b) salinity ( EMBED Equation.3 ) and (c,d) temperature ( EMBED Equation.3 ) difference between the top  EMBED Equation.3 = min[MLT, MLD] and bottom  EMBED Equation.3 =max[MLT, MLD] of barrier/compensated layer, (e,f) bulk Turner angle calculated from  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  between the same two depths. (left) January - March (JFM) values, (right) July - September (JAS) values. Turner angles in the range from -72o to 45o correspond to barrier layers, while compensated layers occur outside this range. Figure 4. Standard deviation (STD) of observed (a) January-March (JFM) and (b) July-September (JAS) averaged BL/CL width. To contrast variability of BLs and CLs, STD deviation is multiplied by the sign of corresponding 3-month average climatological BL/CL width. So the STD for BLs/CLs is positive/negative, respectively. All values are computed from 1960-2007 data. Figure 5. Time correlation of January-March average (a) BL/CL width and bulk Turner angle, (b) BL/CL and density based mixed layer depth, (c) BL/CL and temperature based mixed layer depth. N is the total number of JFM average binned observations during 1960-2007. Correlations are shown at grid points where at least 6 observations are available. Figure 6. Quasi-decadal average barrier layer (positive) and compensated layer (negative) width in (left) northern winter and (right) austral winter. Units are meters. Rectangles show locations of the North Pacific barrier layer box (NP/BL 160oE-150oW, 45o-60oN), and the North Pacific compensated layer box (NP/CL 140oE-160oW, 25o-42oN). Bottom row shows 1991-2007 averages based on the WOD05 data, that doesnt include most of recent Argo data.  EMBED Equation.3 is the number of 3-month average observations accumulated during each 15 year period over the global ocean. There are a total of 11,000 ocean grid points on a 2ox2o grid. Figure 7. Box averaged BL/CL width in the (a) North Pacific barrier layer region, (b) North Pacific compensated layer region. Thin lines are 3-month running mean, bold lines are January-March averages. Data are shown if at least 10 measurements are available for box averaging. See Fig.6 for box locations. Figure 8. Linear time regression of observed 1960-2007 anomalous JFM BL/CL thickness in the North Pacific compensated layer box (see panel a) on anomalous (a) latent heat flux (Wm-2/m, shading), 10m winds (ms-1/m, arrows), mean sea level pressure (mbar/m, contours) and (b) surface precipitation rate (mm h-1/m) elsewhere. BL/CL thickness time series is inverted, so that regressions correspond to widening of CLs and shrinking of BLs. Areas where time correlation with latent heat flux and precipitation is significant at the 95% level are X-hatched while similar areas for air pressure are /-hatched. Inlay shows lagged correlation of anomalous inverted BL/CL thickness and MLD averaged over (solid) the NP/CL box and (dashed) the NP/BL box. The two box locations are shown in a) and b), respectively. Dashed line is the 95% confidence level of zero correlation. Positive correlation at zero lag implies that CL widens when the mixed layer deepens. Atmospheric parameters are provided by the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis of Kalnay et al. (1996). Figure 9. (a) Times series of JFM BL/CL width and MLD averaged over the NP/CL box, and the PDO index. JFM winds and mean sea level pressure (mbar) for years of (b) thin and (c) thick compensated layer. Atmospheric parameters are provided by the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis of Kalnay et al. (1996). Figure 10. Lag regression of SOI on 5S-5N averaged (a) anomalous barrier layer width, (b) precipitation (Xie and Arkin, 1997). Lag regressions show magnitude in response to 1 unit change of SOI. Solid lines in (a) and (b) are time mean BL width and precipitation. Longitude bands corresponding to land are shaded gray in (a). (c) Time series of annual running mean SOI (shaded) and anomalous BL width averaged over 130E-160E, 5S-5N.  For an example for the vertical profile shown in Fig. 1b of deBoyer Montegut et al. (2007) our criterion places the MLT at the top of the warm temperature inversion layer while the deBoyer Montegut et al. (2007) criterion includes the entire subsurface warm layer into the isothermal mixed layer.  The thermal expansion coefficient  EMBED Equation.3  is negative, so that our definition of  EMBED Equation.3  is consistent with Yeager and Large (2007).  This MLT is based on the absolute change of temperature and is different from de Boyer Montgut et al. (2007) who calculate MLT based only on negative change of temperature.  This study focuses on the cold season variability in each hemisphere. Because the peak of mixed layer deepening lags the midmonth of calendar winter by around one month, we choose January-March (JFM) and July-September (JAS) averages to characterize conditions during northern and southern winter, respectively.  CLs in the North Atlantic and Southern Ocean are not displayed in Fig. 3 of de Boyer Montgut et al. (2007) because these CLs have a width which is less than 10% of MLD according to their analysis.   EMBED Equation.3  in Yeager and Large (2007) is computed in the upper 200-m column from Argo profiles.  This data allows only qualitative examination because of short time series. During JFM, only ~50000 gridded observations are available globally that translates into an average of 5 observations at each grid point.  The last period averages are computed twice: including the latest Argo data (Figs. 6c, 6g), and based on the original WOD05 profile inventory (Figs. 6d, 6h). This latter example doesnt include massive Argo deployments of recent years. 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